King Lear: Dramaturgical Casebook
Summary of Play (“The Tragedy of King Lear.”)
King Lear is a dramatic tragedy about a mythic king of England.
Act 1
King Lear, having grown old, decides to relinquish his power in between his three daughters (Goneril, Regan, and Cordelia). The two eldest daughters (Goneril and Regan) fawn over their father and declare their undying love to him. The youngest daughter (Cordelia) refuses to flatter him, saying that her love has been shown through actions and that flowery words mean nothing. In a fit of rage, King Lear disowns Cordelia and gives his kingdom to his two other daughters and their husbands (The Duke of Albany and the Duke of Cornwall respectively). With Cordelia stripped of her status the Duke of Burgundy withdraws his proposal for her to marry him, however the King of France decides that he will still marry her (for her kind heart; he requires no status to love her).
A subplot involved the Earl of Gloucester and the Earl of Kent, two of Lear’s closest allies and friends. When Kent disapproves of Lear’s treatment of Cordelia, he banishes him. Kent disguises himself as Caius and serves Lear in order to still support him. Meanwhile, Gloucester’s illegitimate son Edmund plots of bring his half sibling (Gloucester’s legitimate son and heir Edgar) down. He forges documents to convince his father that Edgar is planning to overthrow him.
At the end of the act, we see that once Goneril and Regan have power they begin to disrespect and ignore their father. Lear, who at the time was staying with Goneril, leaves in a rage due to Goneril’s treatment of him. He heads towards Regan’s house (“The Tragedy of King Lear.”).
Act 2
Regan and her husband are arriving at Gloucester’s home, and Edmund takes the opportunity to frame his brother. He feigns an attack by him, and convinces everyone (including his father) of Edgar’s attempted murder. Gloucester disowns his son and declares him an outlaw.
Meanwhile, Kent has arrived at Regan’s house to announce Lear’s presence and fights with Oswald (Goneril’s steward, who was sent there to warn Regan of Lear’s visit). Regan throws Kent in the stocks. When Lear arrives he is furious to see his messenger (Kent is still in disguise) being punished. Regan treats Lear just as badly as Goneril did, and Goneril even arrives to join Regan in berating their father. Furious at their treatment of him (they have gone against everything they have said; they do not love and respect him) Lear flees into a terrible storm due to his fury.
Lear, lost in the storm, is found by Kent (still in disguise) and Edgar (who is now also disguised as a madman and a beggar). Together they lead Lear to the shelter of a dilapidated hut. The once proud king is slowly becoming insane (“The Tragedy of King Lear.”).
Act 3
This act focuses solely of Gloucester and his plight. He wishes to see Lear returned to the throne, and receives word that a French army, led by Cordelia, has landed in Britain in order to reinstate her father. Edmund finds the missive and gives it to Regan and her husband Cornwall. They arrest Gloucester and gouge out his eyes. A servant of Gloucester tries to defend him and mortally wounds Cornwall. Regan kills the servant, tells Gloucester that Edmund had betrayed him and lied about everything, and departs to get ready for war (“The Tragedy of King Lear.”).
Act 4
Edgar (still disguised) finds his blind father wandering the landscape. Gloucester does not recognize the voice of his son, and begs him to lead him to the cliffs of Dover so he can jump to his death. Edgar tricks Gloucester into falling down a small hill, and then changes his voice and pretends to be someone else, claiming that Gloucester fell of the cliffs and miraculously survived. (Edgar did this in order to stop his father from committing suicide).
Lear, now quite crazy, is lead to the French army but Kent and is reunited with Cordelia. Unfortunately he does not recognize her. Gloucester and Edgar also find their way to the French army and stay, remaining allies of Lear and pitching in to help him regain the throne.
Edmund begins to romance both Regan (who is now widowed) and Goneril (who is becoming estranged from her husband Albany; Albany is disgusted with what Goneril has done to Lear and denounces her). Regan believes that she should marry Edmund due to her now being widowed, but Goneril sends Edmund a letter via Oswald saying that if he kills Albany then all of Britain will be his to rule. While looking for Edmund, Oswald runs into Kent again, and this time Kent kills him. He finds the letter and gets it to Albany.
The British forces of Goneril and Albany, and Regan and Edmund, begin to fight the French forces led by Cordelia. The French side loses, and Edmund has Cordelia and Lear taken into custody, where he tells soldiers to execute them (“The Tragedy of King Lear.”).
Act 5
The victorious British convene, and Regan says that she will marry Edmund now that she is a widow. Albany exposes Goneril’s plot to have Edmund kill him, denounces Goneril and proclaims Edmund a traitor. Regan falls ill, having been poisoned by Goneril out of jealousy. She is taken away and dies. Edmund challenges Albany to a duel, but Edgar (disguised as a soldier) takes Albany’s place. Edgar fatally wounds Edmund. Albany confronts Goneril about the letter to Edmund, and she flees the scene and commits suicide. Edgar reveals himself to his dying brother, saying that Gloucester died from shock and joy when Edgar revealed himself.
Edmund tries to rectify what he has done by telling everyone of the plot to execute Cordelia and Lear, but it is too late. She has been hung and is dead; Lear enters with her corpse, having killed the executioner before he could be hung as well. Like with Gloucester, what he has gone through has been too much and he dies, lamenting that the only daughter that was ever true to him is gone. Albany asks Edgar and Kent (who has revealed himself when Lear returned with Cordelia’s corpse) to rule. Kent says that he must join Lear, and leaves (presumably to commit suicide). Albany and Edgar, the last two characters alive, resolve to rule (“The Tragedy of King Lear.”).
Biography of Playwright (“King Lear.”)
William Shakespeare (April 1564 – April 1616) was an English poet, playwright, and actor).
He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon.
He is widely regarded as one of (if not) the greatest English writer and dramatist.
He has written around 39 plays, 154 sonnets, and various other works such as narrative poems, verses, and essays.
In 1582, at the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway and had three children; Susanna, and Hamnet and Judith (who were twins).
Between 1585 and 1592 he began a successful career as an actor/ playwright and co-owner of the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, an acting company in London.
This company would later be known as the King’s Men.
He retired to Stratford at the age of 49, and he died three years later at the age of 52.
While there is extensive records of his plays and other works, there is little known about his personal life.
This had led to much speculation about things such as his appearance, religion, sexuality, and collaboration with other theatrical artists.
After his death, two of his associates from the King’s Men (John Heminges and Henry Condell) published a comprehensive edition of his work called the First Folio.
The First Folio included nearly all of his plays. There is an inscription on his grave that reads:
Good frend for Iesvs sake forbeare, To digg the dvst encloased heare. Bleste be yͤ man yͭ spares thes stones, And cvrst be he yͭ moves my bones.
Modern spelling: Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear, / To dig the dust enclosed here. / Blessed be the man that spares these stones, / And cursed be he that moves my bones (“King Lear.”).
History of Performances and the Text (“King Lear.”)
King Lear is suspected to have been composed by Shakespeare between 1603 and 1606, although there is no definitive proof of when it was written.
Most modern texts of King Lear are from a combination of sources; two of Shakespeare’s Quartos (published in 1608 and 1619) and the First Folio (1623). There are many differences between these versions. Quarto 1 has around 285 lines that are not included in the Folio, while the Folio contains around 100 lines not found in any Quarto. Many words have been altered and changed between the sources, and each source has a different punctuation method.
Only one performance during Shakespeare’s life is known; for King James I at Whitehall in 1606, on December 26. Any other performance during Shakespeare’s life would have taken place at the Globe Theatre.
Starting in 1660 (when theatres were reopened after facing censorship from the puritan government) any version of King Lear performed would have been Nahum Tate’s adaptation, title The History of King Lear. While there are many differences between that version and Shakespeare’s the most notable are that Cordelia and Lear survive, and Cordelia and Edgar fall in love and get married. The play ends with Lear being restored to the throne, an homage to the restoration of King Charles II which occurred during this time.
The first North American performance of King Lear is likely to have been the Hallam Company with came to Virginia in 1752. The first time that Shakespeare’s version was played (sans the changes made by Tate) was in 1838 at Covent Garden. Also, the character of the Fool (who was completely omitted by Tate) was brought back and played by the actress Priscilla Horton. Cordelia was also played by a woman, Helen Faucit. While this was “Shakespeare’s” version (the plot was unaltered) many lines were edited in order to give more prominence to the principal characters.
During the 1850 and up until the early 20th century, pictorialism became prominent in theatre. As such productions of King Lear edited lines in order to create more striking images and motifs. During the 20th and 21st centuries, King Lear is a staple of theatre repertoires, and while the plot has returned to what Shakespeare wrote, there are still edits done in order to improve clarity of language and to reduce run time.
Some notable modern and contemporary productions of King Lear are:
1962 Stratford-upon-Avon, England, directed by Peter Brook.
Lear played by Paul Scofield.
1994 Moscow, two productions directed by Sergei Zhonovach and Alexei Borodin.
2002 and 2010 New Jersey, Shakespeare in the Parks, directed by Michael Collins and Jon Ciccarelli respectively.
Lear played by Tom Cox in the 2010 production.
2012 Ottawa, Canada, directed by Peter Hinton.
Lear played by August Schellenberg.
2015-16 Sydney, Australia, directed by Neil Armfeild.
Lear played by Geoffrey Rush
Broadway performances: of King Lear, Lear was played by Christopher Plummer is 2004 and Glenda Jackson in 2019.
Upcoming: 2020 Shakespeare & Company will cast Christopher Lloyd as Lear (“King Lear.”).
Themes and Symbols
Nature and Reason
Nature in this play is seen as a mystical force, and is treated as a personification at times (Lear’s attitude towards thunder; the various omens seen in the play, etc). The words “nature”, “natural”, and “unnatural” occur more than forty times across various versions of King Lear.
Reason in the context of the play is defined as rationality; what motivates certain characters to do what. This can be observed in Gloucester and Edmund’s contrasting monologues about astrology; Gloucester is seen as somewhat superstitious and puts faith into what is divined. Meanwhile Edmund is rational and does not believe that astrology or the stars influence people. This is somewhat reminiscent of Life is a Dream.
There are two contrasting views of nature and reason; that of the Lear group (Lear, Gloucester, Albany, Kent) and that of the Edmund group (Edmund, Cornwall, Goneril, Regan). The Lear group bases their reason and motivation on natural/ supernatural phenomenon. This represents the older views of the time; beliefs of the Middle Ages that are based on mysticism but also decency and a bygone, romantic glory. The Edmund group are rational to the point of extremes. In the time Shakespeare wrote this Machiavellianism was gaining traction and replacing the older beliefs. It focuses on society serving the man, and not man serving society (or bending to the whims of a fate that may not exist). Edmund’s rationality leads to a cruelty, a madness-in-reason, which is the ironic foil to Lear’s reason-in-madness that he gains by the end of the play.
Family and Betrayal
King Lear focuses on two families downfall; Lear and his daughters and Gloucester and his sons. Both fathers have children that, motivated by greed (among other things) plot the downfall of the family. Goneril, Regan, and Edmund do many things in order to gain power. Edmund plots against his brother and Goneril and Regan try to kill each other. While Edmund’s motivations are fleshed out (anger over his status due to something he views as trivial; being his illegitimate birth) Goneril and Regan are not given clear motivations for why they act the way they do.
Both father are able to reunite with the “good” child before their demise. For the time period, loyalty towards the family (specifically the father) was very important; though this was in part due to the older traditions which stemmed from the Middle Ages (that Lear and his group represent).
Edmund’s group represents a kind of autonomy, where a person has the right to do whatever is needed in order to gain success/ survival for themselves. From this viewpoint Goneril, Regan, and Edmund’s actions are not wrong; they are securing their future in the face of a society that would remove their rights. No matter how rational the betrayal of Edmund’s group is, morally what they have done is wrong (in the context of Shakespeare’s society) so they are the villains. It is a testament to both Shakespeare’s writing and how the new Machiavellian concepts were being received that while we understand Edmund and his group to be the villains, their motivations for betraying their family are clear and understandable.
Gender Themes
The women in King Lear all defy standard gender roles for Shakespeare’s time. Instead of being subservient towards the men in the play, they command more power then women “should”. When Goneril and Regan take power away from their father, Lear says that they have robbed him of his “manhood” alluding that they have emasculated him by retaining political power and even wrestling some away from him. Cordelia’s insistence on telling the truth in the beginning of the play is odd because women were supposed to dote on the men in their lives. Meanwhile Cordelia stands up to her father is refuses to coddle him. Her use of honesty also shows a proclivity for using her head over her heart.
All the women in the play are exceedingly intelligent; it is even mentioned in the first scene that Cordelia “acts like a queen”. While these qualities may seem admirable, Goneril and Regan’s actions are seen as unnatural and they are quite clearly the villains of the play. We sympathize with Lear because he is treated cruelly by his daughters, but according to them (and also Edmund in a sense) they have the right to do whatever is needed to secure their position in society. Their view is that they should not bend to the will of people when it does not make sense to do so.
Interviews
This is an interview with Dominic Hill (who is the artistic director) and David Hayman (who plays Lear) from the 2012 production of King Lear done by Citizen’s Theatre in Glasgow.
This is an interview with Nancy Meckler (who is the director) and Kevin R. McNally (who plays Lear) from the 2017 production of King Lear done by Shakespeare’s Globe in London.
This is an interview on Charlie Rose with Sir Jonathan Miller (who is the director) from the 2004 production of King Lear done by the Lincoln Center Theatre in New York City.
Glossary/ Close reading for themes (“The Tragedy of King Lear.”)
“I am made of that self mettle as my sister/And prize me at her worth.” Regan, Act 1, Scene 1. Page 1256, Line 69 (“The Tragedy of King Lear.”).
This is an example of how Regan (and also Goneril) defy gender norms by speaking so openly about themselves. Regan is saying that she should be treated the same as Goneril, and while this is during the section where they are professing their love to their father we know that they do not truly love him; this is a self-serving speech. Regan and Goneril are doing all they can to attain the power Lear is promising them.
“Peace, Kent./Come not between the dragon and his wrath./I loved her most and thought to set my rest/On her kind nursery.” King Lear, Act 1, Scene 1. Page 1256, Lines 121-124 (“The Tragedy of King Lear.”).
This speech shows both the insistence on mythology that the “old guard” in the play has, as well as the lofty narcissism that Lear has at the start of the play. Lear is likening himself to something grand and powerful, such as a dragon. A character such as Edmund would not speak about things so unnational as the magic and mythology that Lear of Gloucester believe in.
“Thou, Nature, art my goddess. To thy law/My services are bound. Wherefore should I/Stand in the plague of custom, and permit/The curiosity of nations to deprive me/For that I am some twelve or fourteen moonshines/Lag of a brother? why "bastard"? Wherefore "base"?” Edmund, Act 1, Scene 2. Page 1259, Lines 1-6 (“The Tragedy of King Lear.”).
This sets up the second plot of the play, that of Edmund and his machinations. His argument is simple; why should he be branded as a bastard because he is younger then his brother, or born of another mother? Edmund and his coterie are Machiavellian in that they will not let society or “nature” rule them.
“Blow, winds, and crack your cheeks! Rage, blow!/You cataracts and hurricanoes, spout/Till you have drenched our steeples, drowned the cocks./You sulph'rous and thought-executing fires,/Vaunt-couriers of oak-cleaving thunderbolts,/Singe my white head.” King Lear, Act 3, Scene 2. Page 1274, Lines 1-6 (“The Tragedy of King Lear.”).
This has references to both nature and sight. In Shakespearean times cataracts meant “floodgate” (the waterfalls that dot the Nile are called cataracts), but in our language cataracts refers to an illness that causes blindness. Lear is yelling at a thunderstorm, but he is more so yelling at nature itself. At the start of the play he felt that he was vilified by nature and destiny; he was king and destined to rule and succeed. However he is now the victim of misfortune and is cursing nature for it. He is more or less saying “What else will you throw at me? Go ahead, do your worst”.
“As flies to wanton boys are we to th' gods;/They kill us for their sport.” Earl of Gloucester, Act 4, Scene 1. Page 1281, Lines 36-37 (“The Tragedy of King Lear.”).
This is Gloucester’s version of Lear’s above rant. This takes place after he is blinded, and he is also lamenting how nature/mysticism/the gods/etc. have betrayed him and those he loves.
“You do me wrong to take me out o' th' grave./Thou art a soul in bliss, but I am bound/Upon a wheel of fire, that mine own tears/Do scald like molten lead.” King Lear, Act 4, Scene 7. Page 1289, Lines 44-47 (“The Tragedy of King Lear.”).
This is the counterpoint to Lear’s starting position of heady narcissism. When he is finally reunited with Cordelia he likens her to a “soul in bliss” or angel that has taken him out of a hell he deserves to still be in. He has recognized his mistakes in how he treated Cordelia. This is the nemesis to Lear’s hubris.
“In wisdom I should ask thy name,/But since thy outside looks so fair and warlike,/And that thy tongue some say of breeding breathes,/What safe and nicely I might well delay/By rule of knighthood, I disdain and spurn.” Edmund, Act 5, Scene 3. Page 1293, Lines 142-146 (“The Tragedy of King Lear.”).
This is the end of Edmund’s arc. In this speech he is about to face a masked warrior (his brother Edgar) and states that be his dress and manners he can tell that the warrior is a noble knight; and for that reason he will fight him. Edmund has fallen into the manner that he himself despised at the beginning of the play. He has judged someone based on appearances (stereotypes) and now hates them. This is exactly what was done to him, and that treatment of him lead him down this road.
Works Cited
“King Lear.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 21 Apr. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Lear.
“King Lear: Interviews.” YouTube, Shakespeare's Globe, 16 Oct. 2017, www.youtube.com/.
Rose, Charlie. “Sir Jonathan Miller on Directing King Lear.” YouTube, The Miller Tapes , 2004, www.youtube.com/.
“The Tragedy of King Lear.” The Riverside Shakespeare, by William Shakespeare and G. Blakemore Evans, Houghton Mifflin, 1974, pp. 1249–1305.
Walker, Rick. “Conversations with David Hayman and Dominic Hill - King Lear.” YouTube, CITIZENSTHEATRE, 7 Apr. 2012, www.youtube.com/.
